CHAPETER II
A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
General Remarks
Communicative and whole language instructional approach promote
integration of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in ways that reflect
natural language use. But opportunities for speaking and listening require
structure and planning if they are to sport language development. This digest
describes what speaking involves, and good speakers do in the process of
expressing themselves. It also presents an outline for creating an effective
speaking lesson and for assessing learners’ speaking skill.
2.2
Concept Mapping in Language
Teaching
In language teaching, concept mapping has been widely
recommended and used in variety of ways. The recommendations have been proposed
by some experts as mentioned below:
It has been used to helps teachers
and students build on organized knowledge base in a given discipline
(Pankritius, 1990) or given topic (Kopec, Wood & Brody, 1990). It has been
used to observe change in students’
understanding of concepts over time (Caswel, & Wendell, 1992), to assess
what the leaner knows (Wanderse,19987) and to reveal unique thought
processes (Cohen, 1987). It has been
used to promote positive self-Concept, attitudes toward science (Novak &
Gowin,1984) and increased responsibility for learning (Gurley, 1982). There is
considerable evidence of concept mapping promotes learning in any science. Meaningful
learning occurs when individuals “Choose to relate new knowledge to relevant
concepts with higher commitment on the part of learner to link new concepts
with higher order and more inclusive concepts. That is already understood by the learner. As.
Such, it contest sharply with rote learning, where knowledge is required by
memorization and seldom integrated with that already exists in the learner’s
knowledge structure. To promote meaningful learning, instructional activities
must enhance learner’s abilities to actively construct meaning out of what is
being tough.
This theory underlies the constructivist
perspective on learning – that learning is an affective process in which that
learner is constantly creating and revising his or her internal presentation of
knowledge.
Based on recommendations and
definitions above, the writer summarizes that concept maps is graphical
representation of concepts and their interrelationships. It is very important
for organizing new information and integrating it with existing knowledge. The
act constructing concept maps help learner to recognize new relationship among
concepts and refine their understanding of existing relationship. Concept map
can give manifestations of students’ understanding. Externalize thinking
provide opportunities for discussion as well as interaction.
2.3
Oral Communication Skills
in Adult ESL Interaction
Outside the
classroom, listening is used twice as often as speaking, which in turn is used
twice as much as reading and writing. Inside the classroom, speaking and
listening are the most often used skills (Brown, 1994). They are recognized as
critical for functioning in an English language context, both by teachers and
learners. According to Grognet (1987):
These skills
are also logical instructional starting points when learners have low literacy
levels (in English or their native language) or limited formal education, or
when they come from language backgrounds with a non- Roman script or
predominantly oral tradition. Further, with the drive to incorporate workforce
readiness skills into adult ESL instruction, practice time are being devoted to
such speaking skills are reporting, negotiating, clarifying, and problem
solving.
2.4
What Speaking is
Speaking is interactive process of
constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing
information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). It’s from and meaning are
dependent on the context in which it
occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences,
the physical environment, and the process for speaking. It is often spontaneous
open – ended and evolving, however according to Burns and Joyce (1997).
Speech is not always unpredictable.
Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse
situations (e.g., declining an invention or requesting time off from work), can
be identified and charted. For example, when a salesperson asks “May I help
you?” The expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to
the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the application, and a live
- talking exchange.
Speaking
requires that learner not only know how to produce specific points of language
such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also
that they understand when, why, and in what way to produce language
(sociolinguistic competence). Finally, speech has its own skills, structure,
and conversations different from written language. A good speaker synthesizes
this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act.
Based on the explanations,
speaking requires that learners not only to produce specific points of language
(language competence), but also they must understand to produce language
(sociolinguistic competence).
Teaching speaking is a technique
of presenting the lesson for the purpose improving students’ skill. The process
is referred to students must be exposed to develop vocabularies, as if they are
able to express their mind and feeling.
2.5
What a Good Speaker does
A speakers skills and speech habits
have an impact on the success of any exchange (Van Duzer, 1997). Speakers must be able to anticipate
and then produce the expected patterns of specific discourse situations. They
must also manage discrete element such as turn-talking, rephrasing, providing
feedback, or directing (Burns & Joyce, 1997). For example, a learner
involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know
the usual pattern that such an interaction follow and access that knowledge as
the exchange progress. The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to
describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize word to clarify the description
if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to
indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and
knowledge that instruction might address include the following:
Ø
Producing the sounds,
stress patterns, rheumatic structure, and intonation of the language;
Ø
Using grammar structures
accurately;
Ø
Assessing characteristics
of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of
reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or
differences in perspectives;
Ø
Selecting vocabulary that
is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed,
and setting in which the speech act occurs;
Ø
Applying strategies to
enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or
checking for listener comprehension;
Ø
Using gestures or body
language; and
Ø
Paying attention to the
success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as
vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize
listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994).
Teacher should monitor learner’
speech production to determine what skills and knowledge they already have and
what areas need development. Bailey and Savage’s New Ways in Teaching Speaking (1994), and Lewis’s New Ways in teaching adult (1997) offer
suggestions for activities that can address different skills.
The writer agrees with their opinion,
because in instructional procedure the teacher must provide preproduction and
helps learner becomes more attentive in used language directly. The learners
were interest learning activities, its control, measure, assessment in their
own progress.
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