CHAPA TER II. A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPETER II

A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1    General Remarks

Communicative and whole language instructional approach promote integration of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in ways that reflect natural language use. But opportunities for speaking and listening require structure and planning if they are to sport language development. This digest describes what speaking involves, and good speakers do in the process of expressing themselves. It also presents an outline for creating an effective speaking lesson and for assessing learners’ speaking skill.

2.2   Concept Mapping in Language Teaching

In language teaching, concept mapping has been widely recommended and used in variety of ways. The recommendations have been proposed by some experts as mentioned below:

It has been used to helps teachers and students build on organized knowledge base in a given discipline (Pankritius, 1990) or given topic (Kopec, Wood & Brody, 1990). It has been used to observe  change in students’ understanding of concepts over time (Caswel, & Wendell, 1992), to assess what the leaner knows (Wanderse,19987) and to reveal unique thought processes  (Cohen, 1987). It has been used to promote positive self-Concept, attitudes toward science (Novak & Gowin,1984) and increased responsibility for learning (Gurley, 1982). There is considerable evidence of concept mapping promotes learning in any science. Meaningful learning occurs when individuals “Choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts with higher commitment on the part of learner to link new concepts with higher order and more inclusive concepts. That   is already understood by the learner. As. Such, it contest sharply with rote learning, where knowledge is required by memorization and seldom integrated with that already exists in the learner’s knowledge structure. To promote meaningful learning, instructional activities must enhance learner’s abilities to actively construct meaning out of what is being tough.

 This theory underlies the constructivi^st perspective on learning – that learning is an affective process in which that learner is constantly creating and revising his or her internal presentation of knowledge.

Based on recommendations and definitions above, the writer summarizes that concept maps is graphical representation of concepts and their interrelationships. It is very important for organizing new information and integrating it with existing knowledge. The act constructing concept maps help learner to recognize new relationship among concepts and refine their understanding of existing relationship. Concept map can give manifestations of students’ understanding. Externalize thinking provide opportunities for discussion as well as interaction.  

2.3   Oral Communication Skills in Adult ESL Interaction

Outside the classroom, listening is used twice as often as speaking, which in turn is used twice as much as reading and writing. Inside the classroom, speaking and listening are the most often used skills (Brown, 1994). They are recognized as critical for functioning in an English language context, both by teachers and learners. According to Grognet (1987):

These skills are also logical instructional starting points when learners have low literacy levels (in English or their native language) or limited formal education, or when they come from language backgrounds with a non- Roman script or predominantly oral tradition. Further, with the drive to incorporate workforce readiness skills into adult ESL instruction, practice time are being devoted to such speaking skills are reporting, negotiating, clarifying, and problem solving.

2.4   What Speaking is

Speaking is interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). It’s from and meaning are dependent on the context  in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the process for speaking. It is often spontaneous open – ended and evolving, however according to Burns and Joyce (1997).    

Speech is not always unpredictable. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse situations (e.g., declining an invention or requesting time off from work), can be identified and charted. For example, when a salesperson asks “May I help you?” The expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the application, and a live - talking exchange.

Speaking requires that learner not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what way to produce language (sociolinguistic competence). Finally, speech has its own skills, structure, and conversations different from written language. A good speaker synthesizes this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act.

                Based on the explanations, speaking requires that learners not only to produce specific points of language (language competence), but also they must understand to produce language (sociolinguistic competence).

                Teaching speaking is a technique of presenting the lesson for the purpose improving students’ skill. The process is referred to students must be exposed to develop vocabularies, as if they are able to express their mind and feeling.

2.5   What a Good Speaker does

A speakers skills and speech habits have an impact on the success of any exchange (Van Duzer,  1997). Speakers must be able to anticipate and then produce the expected patterns of specific discourse situations. They must also manage discrete element such as turn-talking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or directing (Burns & Joyce, 1997). For example, a learner involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know the usual pattern that such an interaction follow and access that knowledge as the exchange progress. The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize word to clarify the description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and knowledge that instruction might address include the following:

Ø  Producing the sounds, stress patterns, rheumatic structure, and intonation of the language;

Ø  Using grammar structures accurately;

Ø  Assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives;

Ø  Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and setting in which the speech act occurs;

Ø  Applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension;

Ø  Using gestures or body language; and

Ø  Paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994).

Teacher should monitor learner’ speech production to determine what skills and knowledge they already have and what areas need development. Bailey and Savage’s New Ways in Teaching Speaking (1994), and Lewis’s New Ways in teaching adult (1997) offer suggestions for activities that can address different skills.

The writer agrees with their opinion, because in instructional procedure the teacher must provide preproduction and helps learner becomes more attentive in used language directly. The learners were interest learning activities, its control, measure, assessment in their own progress.

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